Gerunds

A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.

Gerund as subject:

• Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.)
• The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as direct object:

• They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is singing.)
• They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed)

Gerund as subject complement:

• My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.)
• My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as object of preposition:

• The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.)
• The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has been removed.)

A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.

Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.

Finding (gerund)
a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)

The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate.

I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.

my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund)
offering (gerund)
you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement.

Tom's favorite tactic has been jabbering away to his constituents.

jabbering away to (gerund)
his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for.

You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.

faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.

Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.

Being (gerund)
the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)

Punctuation

A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.

Points to remember:

1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.
2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/627/01/

TENSES

A. Four facts about tense that you should know:

1. Tense and time are not the same.

The word tense refers to the forms of verbs in certain languages (including English of course, but many languages do not have tense). The word time is far more difficult to define, but we all experience it. Time is what we measure with clocks, watches, and calendars, for example.

2. Tense and time are related, but it is not a simple (one-to-one) relationship.

That is, present tense does not always mean present time; past tense does not always mean past time. The following simple present tense sentence does not refer to the present time (unless you happen to be reading this very early in the morning):

The sun rises in the east.

In fact, the relationship between tense and time is quite complex. A past tense verb, for example, can refer to a future time:

If I had an exam tomorrow, I would study tonight.

3. It is impossible to completely describe the English system of tenses in a few pages.

English, like all human languages, is extremely complex and almost infinitely flexible. And, as you probably know, nearly every rule about language has many exceptions. Below you will find descriptions of the major English tenses (predicate verb forms). I’ve tried to give you some basic information about the forms and meanings of the twelve traditional tenses. While I believe everything that follows is correct, I know it is not complete.

4. English has only two true tenses: present & past.

Everything else that is usually referred to as tense is really a combination of tense, aspect (continuous, perfect), and/or modality. I will follow the traditional practice and refer to all of these combinations as tenses. However, if you examine these verb forms carefully, you will see that every one contains either present tense, past tense, or a modal auxiliary.

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B. The twelve traditional tenses: All examples below are active; see Passive Sentences for examples of passive verbs.

Forms of the predicate verb below do not always apply to the verb be; however, they do apply to all other English verbs. See Auxiliary Verbs for more information about the verb be.

See Conditional Sentences for some unusual uses of tenses.

See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z for explanations and examples of the five forms of English verbs: BASE, +S, PAST, ING, PARTICIPLE.

Many teachers and textbooks use progressive instead of continuous; they are the same (continuous = progressive).

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Simple Present

Forms of the predicate verb:

1. BASE (if the subject is I, we, you, they, or any plural)

2. +S (if the subject is he, she, it, or any singular other than I or you)

Meanings & examples:

1. Habitual activity

We study every day.

The class meets every Tuesday and Thursday.

2. Present state or condition (stative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below.)

They seem happy.

He knows we are waiting for him.

3. General truth or natural law

Bears live in the forest.

The sun rises in the east.

4. Planned or scheduled future events

We take a final exam at the end of the term.

The plane leaves at 9:00 AM tomorrow.

5. Future time in adverb clauses (see Adverb Clauses)

Before we take the final exam, we will have to study.

I will call her after I talk to her friends tomorrow.

6. In real and predictive conditional sentence (see Conditional Sentences)

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Simple Past

Form of the predicate verb: PAST

Meanings & examples:

1. Completed past action

We studied all day yesterday.

I took the exam early this morning.

2. In imaginative conditional sentences (see Conditional Sentences)

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Simple Future

Forms of the predicate verb:

1. WILL + BASE

2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + BASE

Meaning & examples:

Future time

We will have lunch with George tomorrow.

He is going to study in the library after lunch.

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Present Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)

Form of the predicate verb: AM/IS/ARE + ING

Meanings & examples:

1. Present time

We are preparing for the final exam.

George is studying in the library right now.

2. Planned or scheduled future events

We are taking a final exam at the end of the term.

The plane is leaving at 9:00 AM tomorrow.

3. To emphasize that a state or action is temporary

Mary is living in California. (She might move soon.)

George lives in California. (Simple present: no change is implied.)

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Past Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)

Form of the predicate verb: WAS/WERE + ING

Meanings & examples:

1. Emphasizes duration and/or repetition of past action

He was studying all day yesterday.

We were stopping at every red light.

2. Past action that began before and continued until or after some other past action or time

He was riding his bike until he got a car.

She was sleeping when I got home.

She was sleeping at 2:00 AM. (She went to sleep at 12:00 midnight; she woke up at 8:00 AM.)

3. Two actions that continued for some time at about the same time

They were watching TV while he was studying.

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Future Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)

Forms of the predicate verb:

1. WILL + BE + ING

2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + BE + ING

Meanings & examples:

1. Emphasizes duration and/or repetition of future action

We will be working all day tomorrow.

He is going to be cooking dinner every night next week.

2. Indicates future action that will begin before and continue until or after some other future action or time

She will be studying until 4:00.

He is going to be working at noon.

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Present Perfect

Form of the predicate verb: HAVE/HAS + PARTICIPLE

Meanings & examples:

The present perfect indicates that a past action or state has relevance in the present. The following are some possible explanations for present relevance of a past action or state:

1. Something happened at an unspecified past time

Mary has left school.

Present perfect cannot be used with a specified past time. If a past time is specified, a past tense must be used.

not correct

* Mary has left school last year.

correct

Mary left school last year.

2. Something happened in the very recent past

I have just finished my homework. (I finished it a few minutes ago.)

3. Something happened in the past and it has affected the present

Thank you for inviting me to lunch, but I have already eaten.

Because I ate lunch (past action) a short time ago, I am not eating lunch with you now.

4. Something happened in the past and it may happen again in the future

I have visited Los Angeles many times.

President Kennedy visited Los Angeles many times.

I may visit Los Angeles again in the future, but Kennedy will not because he is dead.

5. Something began in the past and continues in the present

We have known each other for many years.

We met many years ago and we still know each other now.

6. Something happened in the past but within a present time period

My class has had two quizzes this term.

I have felt several earthquakes during my lifetime.

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Past Perfect

Form of the predicate verb: HAD + PARTICIPLE

Meanings & examples:

1. Indicates past action was completed before another past action or past time

He had finished the work before she gave him the money.

He had washed both cars by 9:00 AM.

2. In imaginative conditional sentences (see Conditional Sentences)

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Future Perfect

Forms of the predicate verb:

1. WILL + HAVE + PARTICIPLE

2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + HAVE + PARTICIPLE

Meaning & examples:

Indicates future action that will be completed before another future action or future time

They will have read the book before they take the test.

They will have finished the test by 6:00.

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Present Perfect Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)

Form of the predicate verb: HAVE/HAS + BEEN + ING

Meanings & examples:

Indicates a situation that began in the past and continues in the present

He has been living in California since 1995.

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Past Perfect Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)

Form of the predicate verb: HAD + BEEN + ING

Meaning & examples:

Indicates a past action that continued for some time before some other past action or time

He had been working for two weeks before she paid him.

By 8:00, they had been watching TV for two hours.

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Future Perfect Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)

Forms of the predicate verb:

1. WILL + HAVE + BEEN + ING

2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + HAVE + BEEN + ING

Meaning & examples:

Indicates future action that continues until some other future action or time

I will have been driving for three hours before I stop.

He is going to have been working for two hours by 9:00.

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C. Stative verbs are not used in continuous tenses

A stative verb (love for example) refers to a state of knowledge, perception, or condition; a nonstative verb (eat) refers to an action.

Simple present tense forms of stative verbs are used to mean present time.

correct

Fred loves hamburgers. (stative)

not correct

* Fred is loving hamburgers.

Present continuous forms of nonstative verbs are used to mean present time.

not correct

* Fred eats a hamburger now.

correct

Fred is eating a hamburger now. (nonstative)

Verbs, like most words, can have two (or more) meanings. Some verbs have both stative and nonstative meanings. Here are some of the more common verbs with both stative and nonstative meanings:

appear, feel, have, look, see, smell, taste, think, weigh

The food tastes good. (stative; the food is not doing anything)

Fred is tasting the food. (nonstative; Fred is performing an action)

Fred weighs 195 pounds. (stative; Fred is not doing anything)

Fred is weighing himself. (nonstative; Fred is performing an action)

Some common stative verbs:

verbs indicating possession: belong, have (=possess), own, possess

verbs indicating mental states: believe, doubt, imagine, know, mean, recognize, remember, suppose, think (=believe), understand, wonder

verbs related to the senses: appear, feel, hear, look (=appear), see, smell, taste

verbs referring to emotions: appreciate, desire, dislike, hate, like, love

other stative verbs: contain, cost, equal, measure, need, owe, prefer, seem, want, weigh

http://faculty.deanza.edu/flemingjohn/stories/storyReader$15

Relative clause

Relative Clause adalah bagian dari kalimat (anak kalimat) yang memberi keterangan pada orang atau benda yang mendahuluinya. Istilah Relative Clause sama dengan Adjective Clause. Disebut Adjective Clause karena dia menerangkan benda atau orang yang mendahuluinya. Disebut Relative Clause karena dia menghubungkan (me-relate) benda atau orang tersebut dengan frasa di belakangnya. Relative Clause diawali dengan kata penghubung who, whom, whose, which, that, dengan fungsi sebagai berikut

Who: menerangkan orang sebagai subject
Whom: menerangkan kan orang sebagai object (menggantikan me, you, us, him, her,
them, it)
Whose:menerangkan orang sebagai pemilik (menggantikan my, your, our, his, her, their,
its)
Which: menerangkan benda sebagai subject maupun object
That menerangkan orang atau benda baik sebagai subject maupun object

Contoh:
Orang atau benda yang bergaris bawah pada kalimat sebelah kiri adalah sama dengan kata ganti orang atau benda yang bergaris bawah dalam kalimat sebelah kanan.Kata penghubung dibuat berdasarkan kata ganti orang atau benda dalam kalimat di sebelah kanan.

1. The fisherman gave us some tunas. He caught a lot of tunas.
--The fisherman who caught a lot of tunas gave us some. (subjek)
2. The farmer was away on holiday. I wanted to see him.
--The farmer whom I wanted to see was away on holiday. (objek)
3. The woman asked me. Her bike was lost.
--The woman whose bike was lost asked me. (pemilik)


Latihan
1. the man talked all the time. I sat next to him on the plane.
2. A man answered the phone. He told me you were out.
The man ......
3. A waitress served us. she was very impolite and impatient.
The .....
4. Some boys were arrested. They have now been released.
The boys .....
5. We saw some people. Their car had broken down.
We saw some people ... car had broken down.

Solusi
1. I met a man ... is kind to everybody.
2. The woman ... I called gave me some information.
3. I know the man ... bike is lost.
4. I'll show you the ring ... he gave to me.
5. The man with ... you came to the party is my father.

Untuk memecahkan soal seperti di atas, dapat digunakan trik sebagai berikut:
1. Jika kata sebelum titik-titik adalah menunjukkan manusia, dan setelah titik-titik adalah kata kerja atau kata kerja bantu seperti to be atau modals, atau auxilliary 'do'  (is, isn't, do, don't, will, won't, can, can't, was, wasn't, dll), maka isi titik-titik adalah who.

2. Jika kata sebelum titik-titik adalah menunjukkan manusia, atau manusia diikuti oleh kata depan seperti with, to, by, from, dll dan setelah titik-titik adalah subjek (kata benda, nama orang, atau kata ganti: I, you, we she, he, it, Abdel, Temon, dll), maka isi titik-titik adalah whom.

3. Jika kata sebelum titik-titik adalah menunjukkan orang, atau hewan, dan kata setelah titik-titik adalah kata benda, maka isi titik-titik tersebut adalah whose.

4. Jika kata sebelum titik-titik adalah kata benda yang menunjukkan bukan manusia, maka isi titik-titik adalah which.

Dengan demikian jawaban untuk soal-soal di atas adalah: 1. who,  2. whom, 3. whose, dan  4. which,  5. whom


Catatan; Dalam bahasa percakapan sehari-hari whom seringkali tidak dipakai, sebagai gantinya adalah who; Imet the man who you talked to last week.

http://novenrique.blogspot.com/2010/02/relative-clause-adalah-bagian-dari.html